History of MMA
Mixed martial arts (MMA) is a full contact combat sport that allows the use of both striking and grappling
techniques, both standing and on the ground, from a variety of other
combat sports. The roots of modern mixed martial arts can be traced back
to the ancient Olympics where one of the earliest documented systems of codified full range unarmed combat was utilized in the sport of Pankration. Various mixed style contests took place throughout Europe, Japan and the Pacific Rim during the early 1900s. The combat sport of Vale Tudo that had developed in Brazil from the 1920s was brought to the United States by the Gracie family in 1993 with the founding of the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC), which is the largest MMA promotion company worldwide.[1]
The more dangerous Vale Tudo style bouts of the early UFCs were made
safer with the implementation of additional rules, leading to the
popular regulated form of MMA seen today. Originally promoted as a
competition with the intention of finding the most effective martial arts for real unarmed combat situations, competitors were pitted against one another with minimal rules.[2] Later, fighters employed multiple martial arts into their style while promoters adopted additional rules aimed at increasing safety for competitors and to promote mainstream acceptance of the sport.[3] The name mixed martial arts was coined by Rick Blume, president and CEO of Battlecade, in 1995.[4] Following these changes, the sport has seen increased popularity with a pay per view business that rivals boxing and professional wrestling.[5]
Contents |
History
Early history
During the Greco-Roman era there existed an ancient Olympic combat sport, known as Pankration which featured a combination of grappling and striking skills, similar to modern mixed martial arts. This sport originated in Ancient Greece and was later passed on to the Romans.[6]
No-holds-barred fighting reportedly took place in the late 1880s when wrestlers representing styles, Greco-Roman wrestling and many others met in tournaments and music-hall challenge matches throughout Europe. In the USA, the first major encounter between a boxer and a wrestler in modern times took place in 1887 when John L. Sullivan, then heavyweight world boxing champion, entered the ring with his trainer, Greco-Roman wrestling champion William Muldoon,
and was slammed to the mat in two minutes. The next publicized
encounter occurred in the late 1890s when future heavyweight boxing
champion Bob Fitzsimmons took on European Greco-Roman wrestling champion Ernest Roeber.
In September 1901, Frank Slavin, who had been a contender for
Sullivan's boxing title, knocked out future world wrestling champion Frank Gotch in Dawson City, Canada.[7]
Another early example of mixed martial arts was Bartitsu, which Edward William Barton-Wright founded in London in 1899. Combining judo, jujutsu, boxing, savate and canne de combat (French stick fighting), Bartitsu was the first martial art known to have combined Asian and European fighting styles,[8]
and which saw MMA-style contests throughout England, pitting European
and Japanese champions against representatives of various European
wrestling styles.[8]
| Ancient Greece | – Pankration | |
| Late 19th century | – Hybrid martial arts | |
| Late 1880s | – Early NHB and Mixed Style contests | |
| 1899 | – Barton-Wright and Bartitsu | |
| Early 1900s | – Merikan contests | |
| 1920s | – Early Vale Tudo and Gracie Challenge | |
| 1960s and 1970s | – Bruce Lee and Jeet Kune Do | |
| 1970s | – Antonio Inoki and Ishu Kakutōgi Sen | |
| 1985 | – Shooto forms | |
| 1989 | – First professional Shooto event | |
| 1991 | – First Desafio (BJJ vs. Luta Livre) event | |
| 1993 | – Pancrase forms | |
| 1993 | – UFC forms | |
| Mid/Late 1990s | – International Vale Tudo | |
| 1997–2007 | – PRIDE FC and UFC era | |
| 2000 | – New Jersey SACB develops Unified rules | |
| 2001 | – Zuffa buys UFC | |
| 2005 | – The Ultimate Fighter Debuts | |
| 2005 | – US Army begins sanctioning MMA | |
| 2006–Present | – UFC dominance and international growth | |
| 2006 | – Zuffa buys WFA and WEC | |
| 2006 | – UFC 66 generates over a million PPV buys | |
| 2007 | – Zuffa buys PRIDE FC | |
| 2008 | – EliteXC: Primetime gains 6.5 million peak viewers on CBS | |
| 2009 | – Strikeforce holds 1st major card with female main event | |
| 2011 | – WEC merged with UFC | |
| 2011 | – Zuffa buys Strikeforce | |
| 2011 | – UFC on Fox gains 8.8 million peak viewers on Fox |
The history of modern MMA competition can be traced to mixed style
contests throughout Europe, Japan, and the Pacific Rim during the early
1900s;[9] In Japan these contests were known as merikan, from the Japanese slang for "American [fighting]". Merikan
contests were fought under a variety of rules including points
decision, best of three throws or knockdowns, and victory via knockout
or submission.[10]
As the popularity of professional wrestling waned after World War I it split into two genres: "shoot", in which the fighters actually competed, and "show", which evolved into modern professional wrestling.[11]
In 1936, heavyweight boxing contender Kingfish Levinsky and veteran professional wrestler Ray Steele competed in a mixed match, which Steele won in 35 seconds.[11]
In the late 1960s to early 1970s, the concept of combining the elements of multiple martial arts was popularized in the west by Bruce Lee via his system philosophy of Jeet Kune Do.
Lee believed that "the best fighter is not a Boxer, Karate or Judo man.
The best fighter is someone who can adapt to any style, to be formless,
to adopt an individual's own style and not following the system of
styles." In 2004, UFC President Dana White
would call Lee the "father of mixed martial arts" stating: "If you look
at the way Bruce Lee trained, the way he fought, and many of the things
he wrote, he said the perfect style was no style. You take a little
something from everything. You take the good things from every different
discipline, use what works, and you throw the rest away".[12]
Modern sport
The movement that led to the creation of the American and Japanese mixed martial arts scenes was rooted in two interconnected subcultures and two grappling styles, namely Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and shoot wrestling. First were the vale tudo events in Brazil, followed by the Japanese shoot-style wrestling shows.
Vale tudo began in the 1920s and became renowned with the "Gracie challenge" issued by Carlos Gracie and Hélio Gracie and upheld later on by descendants of the Gracie family. Early mixed martial arts-themed professional wrestling matches in Japan (known as Ishu Kakutōgi Sen (異種格闘技戦), literally "heterogeneous combat sports bouts") became popular with Antonio Inoki in the 1970s. Inoki was a disciple of Rikidōzan, but also of Karl Gotch who trained numerous Japanese wrestlers in catch wrestling.
Mixed martial arts competitions were introduced in the United States with the first Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) in 1993.[13] The sport gained international exposure and widespread publicity when jiu-jitsu fighter Royce Gracie won the first Ultimate Fighting Championship tournament, submitting three challengers in a total of just five minutes,[14] sparking a revolution in martial arts.[15][16]
Japan had its own form of mixed martial arts discipline Shooto that evolved from shoot wrestling in 1985, as well as the shoot wrestling derivative Pancrase founded as a promotion in 1993. The first Vale Tudo Japan tournaments were held in 1994 and 1995, both were won by Rickson Gracie. Around the same time, International Vale Tudo competition started to develop through (WVC, VTJ, IVC, UVF etc. Interest in mixed martial arts as a sport resulted in the creation of the Pride Fighting Championships (Pride) in 1997, where again Rickson participated and won.[17]
Regulation
In April 2000, the California State Athletic Commission voted unanimously in favor of regulations that later became the foundation for the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts.
However when the legislation was sent to California's capitol for
review, it was determined that the sport fell outside the jurisdiction
of the CSAC, rendering the vote superfluous.[18]
In September 2000, the New Jersey State Athletic Control Board
began to allow mixed martial arts promoters to conduct events in New
Jersey. The intent was to allow the NJSACB to observe actual events and
gather information to establish a comprehensive set of rules to
effectively regulate the sport.[19]
On April 3, 2001, the NJSACB held a meeting to discuss the regulation
of mixed martial arts events. This meeting attempted to unify the
myriad rules and regulations which have been utilized by the different
mixed martial arts organizations. At this meeting, the proposed uniform
rules were agreed upon by the NJSACB, several other regulatory bodies,
numerous promoters of mixed martial arts events and other interested
parties in attendance. At the conclusion of the meeting, all parties in
attendance were able to agree upon a uniform set of rules to govern the
sport of mixed martial arts.[19]
The rules adopted by the NJSACB have become the de facto standard set
of rules for professional mixed martial arts across North America. On
July 30, 2009, a motion was made at the annual meeting of the Association of Boxing Commissions to adopt these rules as the "Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts". The motion passed unanimously.[20]
In November 2005, recognition of mixed martial arts effectiveness came as the United States Army began to sanction mixed martial arts with the first annual Army Combatives Championships held by the US Army Combatives School.[21]
Growth
The sport reached a new peak of popularity in North America in the December 2006 rematch between then UFC light heavyweight champion Chuck Liddell and former champion Tito Ortiz, rivaling the PPV sales of some of the biggest boxing events of all time,[5] and helping the UFC's 2006 PPV gross surpass that of any promotion in PPV history. In 2007, Zuffa LLC, the owners of the UFC MMA promotion, bought Japanese rival MMA brand Pride FC, merging the contracted fighters under one promotion[22] and drawing comparisons to the consolidation that occurred in other sports, such as the AFL-NFL Merger in American football.[23]
Since the UFC's explosion into the mainstream media in 2006 along with their 2007 merger with Pride FC and purchase of WEC, few companies have presented significant competition.[24] However numerous organizations have held shows of significance while competing against the UFC.
The most notable competition has included:
- Strikeforce (2006–Present)
- International Fight League (2006–2008)
- EliteXC (2006–2008)
- Bellator Fighting Championships (2008–Present)
- DREAM (2008–2012)
On April 30, 2011, UFC 129 set a new North American MMA attendance record, drawing 55,724 at the Rogers Centre in Toronto; the event also set a new MMA world record for the highest paid gate at $12,075,000[25] and is the highest gate in Toronto for any event.[26]
Development of fighters
As a result of an increased number of competitors, organized training camps, information sharing, and modern kinesiology, the understanding of the combat-effectiveness of various strategies has been greatly improved. UFC commentator Joe Rogan claimed that martial arts evolved more in the ten years following 1993 than in the preceding 700 years combined.[27]
| "During his reign atop the sport in the late 1990s he was the prototype — he could strike with the best strikers; he could grapple with the best grapplers; his endurance was second to none. " |
| — describing UFC champion Frank Shamrock's early dominance[28] |
 |
The examples and perspective in this section may not include all significant viewpoints. (December 2010) |
The high profile of modern MMA promotions such as UFC and Pride has
fostered an accelerated development of the sport. The early 1990s saw a
wide variety of traditional styles competing in the sport.[29] However, early competition saw varying levels of success among disparate styles.
In the early 1990s, practitioners of grappling based styles such as Brazilian jiu-jitsu dominated competition in the United States. Practitioners of striking based arts such as boxing, kickboxing, and karate who were unfamiliar with submission grappling proved to be unprepared to deal with its submission techniques.[30][31][32][33][34] This increase of cross-training resulted in fighters becoming increasingly multi-dimensional and well-rounded in their skills.
The new hybridization of fighting styles can be seen in the technique
of "ground and pound" developed by wrestling based UFC pioneers such as
Dan Severn, Don Frye and Mark Coleman.
These wrestlers realized the need for the incorporation of strikes on
the ground as well as on the feet and incorporated ground striking into
their grappling based styles. Mark Coleman stated at UFC 14 his strategy
was to "Ground him and pound him" which may be the first televised use
of the term ground and pound.
Since the late 1990s, both strikers and grapplers have been
successful at MMA though it is rare to see any fighter who is not
schooled in both striking and grappling arts reach the highest levels of
competition.
Rules
Main article: Mixed martial arts rules
The rules for modern mixed martial arts competitions have changed
significantly since the early days of vale tudo, Japanese shoot
wrestling, and UFC 1, and even more from the historic style of pankration.
As the knowledge of fighting techniques spread among fighters and
spectators, it became clear that the original minimalist rule systems
needed to be amended.[35]
The main motivations for these rule changes were protection of the
health of the fighters, the desire to shed the perception of "barbarism
and lawlessness", and to be recognized as a legitimate sport.
The new rules included the introduction of weight classes;
as knowledge about submissions spread, differences in weight had become
a significant factor. There are nine different weight classes in the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts. These nine weight classes include flyweight (up to 125 lb / 56.7 kg), bantamweight (up to 135 lb / 61.2 kg), featherweight (up to 145 lb / 65.8 kg), lightweight (up to 155 lb / 70.3 kg), welterweight (up to 170 lb / 77.1 kg), middleweight (up to 185 lb / 83.9 kg), light heavyweight (up to 205 lb / 93.0 kg), heavyweight (up to 265 lb / 120.2 kg), and super heavyweight with no upper weight limit.[19]
Small, open-fingered gloves
were introduced to protect fists, reduce the occurrence of cuts (and
stoppages due to cuts) and encourage fighters to use their hands for
striking to allow more captivating matches. Gloves were first made
mandatory in Japan's Shooto
promotion and were later adopted by the UFC as it developed into a
regulated sport. Most professional fights have the fighters wear 4 oz
gloves, whereas some jurisdictions require amateurs to wear a slightly
heavier 6 oz glove for more protection for the hands and wrists.
Time limits were established to avoid long fights with little action
where competitors conserved their strength. Matches without time limits
also complicated the airing of live events. The time limits in most
professional fights are three 5 minute rounds, and championship fights
are normally five 5 minute rounds. Similar motivations produced the
"stand up" rule, where the referee can stand fighters up if it is
perceived that both are resting on the ground or not advancing toward a
dominant position.[35]
In the U.S., state athletic and boxing commissions have played a
crucial role in the introduction of additional rules because they
oversee MMA in a similar fashion to boxing. In Japan and most of Europe,
there is no regulating authority over competitions, so these
organizations have greater freedom in rule development and event
structure.
Victory
Victory in a match is normally gained either by the judges' decision
after an allotted amount of time has elapsed, a stoppage by the referee
(for example if a competitor can not defend himself intelligently) or
the fight doctor (due to an injury), a submission, by a competitor's cornerman throwing in the towel, or by knockout.
Knockout (KO): as soon as a fighter becomes unconscious due to
strikes, his opponent is declared the winner. As MMA rules allow ground
fighting, the fight is stopped to prevent further injury to an
unconscious fighter.
Submission: a fighter may admit defeat during a match by:
- a tap on the opponent's body or mat/floor
- a verbal announcement/verbal tap
Technical Knockout (TKO)
- Referee stoppage: The ref may stop a match in progress if:
- a fighter becomes dominant to the point where the opponent can not intelligently defend himself and is taking excessive damage as a result
- a fighter appears to be unconscious from a submission hold or due to a strike
- a fighter appears to have a significant injury such as a cut or a broken bone
Doctor Stoppage: the referee will call for a time out if a fighter's
ability to continue is in question as a result of apparent injuries,
such as a large cut. The ring doctor will inspect the fighter and stop
the match if the fighter is deemed unable to continue safely, rendering
the opponent the winner. However, if the match is stopped as a result of
an injury from illegal actions by the opponent, either a
disqualification or no contest will be issued instead.
Corner stoppage: a fighter's corner men may announce defeat on the
fighter's behalf by throwing in the towel during the match in progress
or between rounds.
Decision: if the match goes the distance, then the outcome of the
bout is determined by three judges. The judging criteria are
organization-specific.
Forfeit: a fighter or his representative may forfeit a match prior to the beginning of the match, thereby losing the match.
Disqualification: a "warning" will be given when a fighter commits a
foul or illegal action or does not follow the referee's instruction.
Three warnings will result in a disqualification. Moreover, if a fighter
is injured and unable to continue due to a deliberate illegal technique
from his opponent, the opponent will be disqualified.
No Contest: in the event that both fighters commit a violation of the
rules, or a fighter is unable to continue due to an injury from an
accidental illegal technique, the match will be declared a "No Contest".
Clothing
Mixed martial arts promotions typically require that male fighters wear shorts in addition to being barechested, thus precluding the use of gi or fighting kimono to inhibit or assist submission holds. Male fighters are required by most athletic commissions to wear groin protectors underneath their trunks.[19] Female fighters wear short shorts and sports bras or other similarly snug-fitting tops. Both male and female fighters are required to wear a mouth piece.[19]
The need for flexibility in the legs combined with durability
prompted the creation of various fighting shorts brands, which then
spawned a range of mixed martial arts clothing and casual wear available to the public.
Common disciplines
Most 'traditional' martial arts have a specific focus and these arts
may be trained to improve in that area. Popular disciplines of each type
include:
- Stand-up: Various forms of Boxing, Kickboxing, Muay Thai, TaeKwonDo, Kung Fu, and Karate are trained to improve footwork, elbowing, kicking, kneeing and punching.
- Clinch: Freestyle, Greco-Roman wrestling, Sambo and Judo are trained to improve clinching, takedowns and throws, while Muay Thai is trained to improve the striking aspect of the clinch.
- Ground: Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, Submission Wrestling, shoot wrestling, catch wrestling, Judo and Sambo are trained to improve ground control and position, as well as to achieve submission holds, and defend against them.
Some styles have been adapted from their traditional form, such as boxing stances which lack effective counters to leg kicks and the muay thai stance which is poor for defending against takedowns due to the static nature, or Judo and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, techniques which must be adapted for No Gi
competition. It is common for a fighter to train with multiple coaches
of different styles or an organized fight team to improve various
aspects of their game at once. Cardiovascular conditioning, speed drills, strength training and flexibility
are also important aspects of a fighter's training. Some schools
advertise their styles as simply "mixed martial arts", which has become a
style in itself, but the training will still often be split into
different sections.
While mixed martial arts was initially practised almost exclusively
by competitive fighters, this is no longer the case. As the sport has
become more mainstream and more widely taught, it has become accessible
to wider range of practitioners of all ages. Proponents of this sort of
training argue that it is safe for anyone, of any age, with varying
levels of competitiveness and fitness.[36][37]
Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu
Main article: Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu
Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu came to international prominence in the martial
arts community in the early 1990s, when Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu expert Royce Gracie won the first, second and fourth Ultimate Fighting Championships, which at the time were single elimination martial arts tournaments. Royce fought against often much-larger opponents who were practicing other styles, including boxing,Wrestling, Amateur Wrestling (including Freestyle, Greco-Roman, and American Folkstyle), shoot-fighting, karate, judo and tae kwon do.
It has since become a staple art for many MMA fighters and is largely
credited for bringing widespread attention to the importance of ground fighting. Sport BJJ tournaments continue to grow in popularity worldwide and have given rise to no-gi submission grappling tournaments, such as the ADCC Submission Wrestling World Championship. It is primarily considered a ground-based fighting style, with emphasis on positioning, chokes and joint locks.
Amateur wrestling
Main article: Wrestling
Amateur Wrestling (including Freestyle, Greco-Roman, and American
Folkstyle) gained tremendous respect due to its effectiveness in mixed
martial arts competitions. Wrestling is widely studied by mixed martial
artists. Wrestling is also credited for conferring an emphasis on
conditioning for explosive movement and stamina, both of which are
critical in competitive mixed martial arts. It is known for excellent
takedowns, particularly against the legs.
Catch wrestling
Main article: Catch wrestling
Karl Gotch was a catch wrestler and a student of Billy Riley's Snake Pit in Whelley, Wigan. In the film Catch: the hold not taken,
some of those who trained with Gotch in Wigan talk of his fascination
with the traditional Lancashire style of wrestling and how he was
inspired to stay and train at Billy Riley's after experiencing its
effects first hand during a professional show in Manchester, England.
After leaving Wigan, he later went on to teach catch wrestling to
Japanese professional wrestlers in the 1970s to students including Antonio Inoki, Tatsumi Fujinami, Hiro Matsuda, Osamu Kido, Satoru Sayama (Tiger Mask) and Yoshiaki Fujiwara.
Starting from 1976, one of these professional wrestlers, Inoki, hosted a
series of mixed martial arts bouts against the champions of other
disciplines. This resulted in unprecedented popularity of the
clash-of-styles bouts in Japan. His matches showcased catch wrestling
moves like the sleeper hold, cross arm breaker, seated armbar, Indian deathlock and keylock.
Karl Gotch's students formed the original Universal Wrestling Federation (Japan) in 1984 which gave rise to shoot-style matches. The UWF movement was led by catch wrestlers and gave rise to the mixed martial arts boom in Japan. Wigan stand-out Billy Robinson soon thereafter began training MMA legend Kazushi Sakuraba. Catch wrestling forms the base of Japan's martial art of shoot wrestling. Japanese professional wrestling and a majority of the Japanese fighters from Pancrase, Shooto and the now defunct RINGS bear links to catch wrestling.
The term no holds barred was used originally to describe the
wrestling method prevalent in catch wrestling tournaments during the
late 19th century wherein no wrestling holds were banned from the
competition, regardless of how dangerous they might be. The term was
applied to mixed martial arts matches, especially at the advent of the Ultimate Fighting Championship.[38]
Judo
Main article: Judo
Using their knowledge of ne-waza/ground grappling and tachi-waza/standing-grappling, several Judo practitioners have also competed in mixed martial arts matches. Anderson Silva, who is the top ranked fighter in the world maintains a black belt in judo, former Russian national Judo championship Bronze medallist Fedor Emelianenko, famous UFC fighter Karo Parisyan, Olympic medallists Hidehiko Yoshida (Gold, 1992), rising contender Dong Hyun Kim is a 4th degree judo black belt, and Ronda Rousey (Bronze, 2008) now Strikeforce Women's Bantamweight Champion.
Paulo Filho, a former WEC middleweight champion has even credited judo for his success during an interview.[39]
Karate
Main article: Karate
Karate has proved to be effective in the sport as it is one of the core foundations of kickboxing.[40][41] Various styles of karate are practiced by some MMA fighters, notably Chuck Liddell, Lyoto Machida and Georges St-Pierre. Liddell is known to have an extensive striking background in Kenpō and Koei-Kan[42] whereas Lyoto Machida practices Shotokan Ryu,[43] and St-Pierre practices Kyokushin.[44]
Kung Fu
Main article: Kung Fu
Kung Fu
is a widely recognised comprehensive martial art, originated in Ancient
China, and it is widely practiced by Asian MMA fighters. In particular,
mantis style kung fu, characterized by very effective blocking-striking
hand techniques, and tiger style kung fu, characterized by its
ferocious skills, are considered top fighting systems. UFC Middleweight Cung Le is a champion in Sanda Kung Fu.
Muay Thai
Main article: Muay Thai
Muay Thai, like boxing and various forms of kickboxing, is recognised as a foundation for striking
in mixed martial arts, and is very widely trained among MMA fighters.
Countless mixed martial artists have trained in Muay Thai, and it is
often taught at MMA gyms as is BJJ and Wrestling.
Muay Thai is the style which is used predominantly for the stand-up game in MMA. It originated in Thailand,
and is known as the "art of eight limbs" which refers to the use of the
legs, knees, elbows and fists. It is a very aggressive and straight
forward style from which kick boxing is derived.
Taekwondo
Main article: Taekwondo
A very popular Korean martial art, Taekwondo has had mixed success.
While many practitioners have a background or have trained in Taekwondo
in the past, due to the sparring rules Taekwondo is traditionally
sparred in, it often requires cross-training with kickboxing for full
contact strikes. Nonetheless, the excessive kicking is recognized as a
good way to keep the opponent at a distance, score points and even
effectively knock someone out. Fighters such as Anderson Silva, Cung Le, Benson Henderson and Anthony Pettis are notable fighters who have successfully used Taekwondo techniques in mixed martial arts competition.
Strategies
The techniques utilized in mixed martial arts competition generally fall into two categories: striking techniques (such as kicks, knees, punches and elbows) and grappling techniques (such as clinch holds, pinning holds, submission holds, sweeps, takedowns and throws).
Today, mixed martial artists must cross-train in a variety of styles to counter their opponent's strengths and remain effective in all the phases of combat.
Sprawl-and-brawl
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This section does not cite any references or sources. (October 2010) |
Sprawl-and-brawl is a stand-up fighting tactic that consists of effective stand-up striking, while avoiding ground fighting, typically by using sprawls to defend against takedowns.
A sprawl-and-brawler is usually a boxer, kickboxer, Thai boxer or Karate fighter who has trained in various styles of Wrestling, Judo, and/or Sambo to avoid takedowns to keep the fight standing. Often, these fighters will study submission wrestling
to avoid being forced into submission, should they find themselves on
the ground. This style can be deceptively different from traditional
kickboxing styles, since sprawl-and-brawlers must adapt their techniques
to incorporate takedown and ground fighting defense. Mirko Filipović is one of the best known proponents of this fighting style in MMA.
Clinch fighting
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This section does not cite any references or sources. (October 2010) |
Clinch fighting and dirty boxing are tactics consisting of using a clinch hold to prevent the opponent from moving away into more distant striking range, while also attempting takedowns and striking the opponent using knees, stomps, elbows, and punches. The clinch is often utilized by wrestlers and Judokas that have added components of the striking game (typically boxing), and Muay Thai fighters.
Wrestlers and Judokas may use clinch fighting as a way to neutralize
the superior striking skills of a stand-up fighter or to prevent
takedowns by a superior ground fighter. The clinch or "plumb" of a Muay Thai fighter is often used to improve the accuracy of knees and elbows by physically controlling the position of the opponent.
Other fighters may use the clinch to push their opponent against the
cage or ropes, where they can effectively control their opponent's
movement and restrict mobility while striking them with punches to the
body or stomps. Randy Couture used his Greco Roman wrestling background to popularize this style en route to six title reigns in the Ultimate Fighting Championship.
Ground-and-pound
Ground-and-pound is a strategy consisting of taking an opponent to
the ground using a takedown or throw, obtaining a top, or dominant position,
and then striking the opponent, primarily with fists and elbows.
Ground-and-pound is also used as a precursor to attempting submission
holds.
This style is used by wrestlers or other fighters well-versed in submission defense and skilled at takedowns. They take the fight to the ground, maintain a grappling position, and strike until their opponent submits or is knocked out.
Although not a traditional style of striking, the effectiveness and
reliability of ground-and-pound has made it a popular tactic as it was
first demonstrated as an effective technique by UFC and Pride grand prix champion, Mark Coleman, then popularized by fighters such as Don Frye, Frank Trigg, Frank Shamrock and Tito Ortiz. Matt Hughes is also well known for his ground and pound.[45] Today, strikes on the ground are an essential part of a fighter's training.
Submission grappling (sub-seeking)
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This section does not cite any references or sources. (October 2010) |
Apart from being a general martial arts, submission grappling is also a reference to the ground fighting tactic consisting of taking an opponent to the ground using a takedown or throw and then applying a submission hold, forcing the opponent to submit. While grapplers will often work to attain dominant position,
some may be more comfortable fighting from other positions. If a
grappler finds themselves unable to force a takedown, they may resort to
pulling guard, whereby they physically pull their opponent into a dominant position on the ground.
Submissions are an essential part of many disciplines, most notably Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, catch wrestling, judo, Sambo, and shootwrestling. They were popularized in the early UFC events by Royce Gracie and Ken Shamrock.
Women's competition
While mixed martial arts is primarily a male dominated sport, it does
have female athletes. Female competition is more prominent in Japan, with promotions such as the all-female Valkyrie and JEWELS (formerly known as Smackgirl).[46] However historically there has been only a select few major professional mixed martial arts organizations in the United States that invite women to compete. The main organizations to support female competition include, Strikeforce, Bellator Fighting Championships, and the now defunct EliteXC.
There has been a growing awareness of women in mixed martial arts due to popular female fighters and personalities such as Megumi Fujii, Miesha Tate, Cristiane "Cyborg" Santos, and Gina Carano among others. Carano quickly became known as "the face of women's MMA" after appearing in a number of EliteXC events. This was furthered by her appearances on MGM Television's 2008 revival of their classic game show American Gladiators.
History
In Japan, female competition has been documented since the mid-1990s. With early influences coming from female professional wrestling and kickboxing. Which ultimately lead to the formation of Smackgirl
in 2001. Smackgirl quickly became the only major all-female promotion
in mixed martial arts. However other early successful Japanese female
organizations included, Ladies Legend Pro Wrestling, ReMix (predecessor
to Smackgirl), U-Top Tournament, K-Grace, and AX.
Also aside from all-female organizations, most major Japanese male
dominated promotions have held select female competitions. Including, DEEP, MARS, Gladiator, HEAT, Cage Force, K-1, Sengoku, Shooto (under the name G-Shooto), and Pancrase (under the name Pancrase Athena).
Meanwhile in the United States, prior to the success of the The Ultimate Fighter
reality show that launched mixed martial arts into the mainstream media
there was no major coverage of female competitions. Some early
organizations who invited women to compete included, International Fighting Championships, SuperBrawl, King of the Cage, Rage in the Cage, Ring of Combat, Bas Rutten Invitational, and HOOKnSHOOT. However starting in the mid-2000s more coverage came when organizations such as, bodogFight, Strikeforce, EliteXC, Bellator Fighting Championships, and Shark Fights invited women to compete.
Outside of Japan and the United States, female competition is almost
exclusively held in minor local promotions. However in Europe some major
organizations have held select female competitions. Including, It's Showtime, Shooto Europe, Cage Warriors, and M-1 Global.
In recent history, following Zuffa's acquisition of Strikeforce
in March 2011. There has been lots of speculation over the future of
women's competition. Both in terms of relevancy and popularity.[47][48][49][50]
Rule differentiation
Since some of the earliest female competitions, organizations have often changed traditional rules for women due to concerns over safety.
In Japan, ReMix prohibited ground-and-pound and featured a 20-second
time limitation for ground fighting. Following ReMix's re-branding into Smackgirl this rule remained however the time limit was extended to 30 seconds before being abolished in 2008.[51]
In the United States, EliteXC
held women's bouts at three minute rounds instead of the traditional
five minutes that is often used for men. In similar fashion Strikeforce originally held women's bouts at only two minute rounds but later changed this rule to allow for five minute rounds.
Another form of rule differentiation includes the changing of weight
classes, both in weight limits and classification. This has been seen in
a number of organizations including, Strikeforce, Smackgirl, and Valkyrie.
Milestones
One of the first major female MMA fights was Gina Carano's Strikeforce debut against Elaina Maxwell where Carano won via unanimous decision at Strikeforce: Triple Threat in San Jose on December 8, 2006.
Strikeforce has become the first major promotion in the United States to have held a female fight as the main event on August 15, 2009. The fight between Gina Carano and Cristiane Santos attracted 856,000 viewers.[52] Santos made history with her victory over Carano as she became the first ever Strikeforce Women's 145 lb Champion.[53]
Disagreement
Since its inception the role of women in mixed martial arts has been a
subject of debate. With some observers treating women's competition as a
spectacle and a taboo topic.[54] In December 2004, lightweight fighter Takumi Yano refused to participate in a Pancrase event in protest of there being female bouts on the same card.
Safety
Mixed Martial Arts competitions have changed dramatically since the
first Ultimate Fighting Championship in 1993, specifically with the
inception of the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts. The overall injury rate in MMA competitions is currently similar to other combat sports, including boxing.[13]
A study by Johns Hopkins University
concluded, "the overall injury rate [excluding injury to the brain] in
MMA competitions is now similar to other combat sports [involving striking], including boxing. Knockout rates are lower in MMA competitions than in boxing. This suggests a reduced risk of traumatic brain injury in MMA competitions when compared to other events involving striking."
In preliminary results reported in April 2012 as part of an ongoing
study of a 109 professional boxers and MMA fighters being conducted by
Dr. Charles Bernick and his colleagues at Cleveland Clinic’s Lou Ruvo
Center for Brain Health, fighters with more than six years of ring
experience were observed to have reductions in size in their hippocampus
and thalamus whereas fighters with more than twelve years of ring
experience were observed to have both reductions in size and symptoms
such as memory loss (the hippocampus and thalamus deal with memory and
alertness). Dr. Bernick speculates that studying cumulative lesser blows
may eventually prove even more important than studying infrequent
concussions.[55]
Fatalities
Main article: fatalities in mixed martial arts contests
While competition in the MMA have been occasionally depicted as brutal by the media,[56] there were no documented cases of deaths after a sanctioned MMA event prior to 2007.[57]
In the period of 2007 to 2010, there were two fatalities in mixed martial arts matches. The first was the death of Sam Vasquez on November 30, 2007.[58] Vasquez collapsed shortly after being knocked out by Vince Libardi in the third round of an October 20, 2007 fight at the Toyota Center in Houston, Texas.[59]
Vasquez had two separate surgeries to remove blood clots from his
brain, and shortly after the second operation suffered a devastating
stroke and never regained consciousness.[58]
While questions have been asked about Vasquez's health before his final
bout, no firm indications of pre-existing problems have yet surfaced.
The second death stemming from a sanctioned mixed martial arts contest
occurred in South Carolina on June 28, 2010, when 30-year old Michael
Kirkham was knocked out and never regained consciousness. He was
pronounced dead two days after the fight.[60] There have been 7 known deaths in MMA to date [61]
Legality of professional competitions
 |
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (November 2010) |
United States
According to the Associations of Boxing Commissions, professional MMA competitions are allowed in most states.[62] However, relevant legislation is pending in Connecticut (except on Foxwoods and Mohegan Sun Indian Reservations[63]).
Alaska has no boxing or athletic commission, Montana has a state
athletic commission although it doesn't regulate MMA, however MMA is
legal in both states. West Virginia became the 44th state to regulate
mixed martial arts on March 24, 2011.[64] On March 8, 2012, Wyoming became the 45th state to regulate MMA.[65] On May 4, 2012, in was announced that Vermont had become the 46th state to regulate MMA.[66] In May 2012 the New York state assembly failed to overturn the state's ban on mixed martial arts [67]
Canada
In Canada, professional MMA competitions are not actually legal.
Section 83(2) of the Canadian Criminal Code deems that only boxing
matches, where only fists are used, are legal.[68][69] However most provinces regulated it by an athletic commission, such as the provinces of Manitoba, Ontario,[70] Nova Scotia, Quebec, and Northwest Territories. The legality of MMA in the provinces of Alberta, British Columbia and New Brunswick varies depending on the municipality.[62][71] Professional MMA competitions remain illegal in the Canadian provinces of Newfoundland and Labrador, Prince Edward Island, Saskatchewan, Yukon and Nunavut because it is not regulated by an athletic commission.
Japan
MMA competition has been legal in Japan since at least the mid 80s (when Pancrase[72] fights began to be held), and has produced a number of MMA related organizations including Cage Force, DEEP, PRIDE Fighting Championships, RINGS, Shooto, Smackgirl, Hero's, and ZST.[73][74]
Sweden
MMA competition is legal[75] and under the purview of the Swedish Mixed Martial Arts Federation (SMMAF) which was formed in 2007[76] and began overseeing MMA events in 2008.[77] In 2009 the SMMAF was accepted into the Association of Swedish Budo and Martial Arts Federation,[77] thus granting MMA “national sport” status and making its approved clubs eligible for partial government subsidization.[77] On April 30, 2011, the SMMAF sanctioned the first event under its purview to utilize the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts.[78]
South Africa
MMA competition is legal and under the purview of the Professional Mixed Martial Arts Council or PROMMA Africa[citation needed]
(www.promma.co.za) which was formed in 2010 with its main purpose to
regulate MMA at larger MMA promotions such as EFC Africa
(www.efcafrica.com). PROMMA Africa began overseeing Rise of the Warrior
(www.shido.co.za) MMA events in 2010. In 2012 the PROMMA Africa Council
was accepted into the Mixed Martial Arts Association of South Africa
(MASA) thus granting MMA “national sport” status.[citation needed]
Amateur MMA is also legal in South Africa and is also regsitered to the
Mixed Martial Arts Association of South Africa (www.MAGCSA.co.za).
Thailand
In 2012, the Sports Authority of Thailand banned competitions
